Glossary · Middle East
Every Middle Eastern territory on the map
Incense kingdoms, caliphates, sultanates, today's states.
- Entries
- 126
- Span
- AD 1 – today
- Eras
- 6
What this region covers
The Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, Persia, the Caucasus fringe, Egypt's sphere, the Horn of Africa and Afghanistan — from the incense kingdoms of South Arabia to the states on the map today.
Nothing matches that.
Antiquity
AD 1 – 632 19 entries- early 1st millennium BC – c. AD 290Kingdom Hadhramaut South Arabian kingdom on the Wadi Hadhramaut and Wadi al-Masila, easternmost of the incense-trade states with Indian Ocean coasts.
- 110 BC – AD 525Kingdom Himyarite Kingdom South Arabian kingdom that rose from a tribal principality near Zafar to dominate the Yemeni highlands for over six centuries.
- 37 BC – AD 6Client kingdom of Rome Judea Roman client kingdom of the southern Levant, heir to the Iron Age Kingdom of Judah, centred on Jerusalem before Rome annexed it.
- c. 164 BC – c. AD 379 Kingdom of Adiabene Parthian then Sasanian vassal kingdom in northern Mesopotamia between the Zab rivers, ruled from Arbela in old Assyria.
- 331/321 BC – AD 428 Kingdom of Armenia Hellenistic kingdom grown from an Achaemenid satrapy, ruled by the Orontid dynasty and briefly an empire under Tigranes.
- c. AD 100 – c. 940Empire / trading kingdom Kingdom of Axum Red Sea trading empire on the Ethiopian and Eritrean highlands, first recorded ruling from Adulis into the ivory-rich interior.
- 331 BC – AD 17 Kingdom of Cappadocia Hellenistic Iranian kingdom on the Anatolian plateau, founded by Ariarathes I, the last Achaemenid satrap of Cappadocia.
- 163 BC – AD 17 Kingdom of Commagene Roman client buffer kingdom between Cilicia and the Euphrates, founded by the Hellenized Iranian Orontid governor Ptolemaeus.
- c. 189 BC – 4th century AD Kingdom of Gordyene Mountain vassal kingdom south of Lake Van, a buffer between Armenia, Parthia and Rome, heir to the Carduchoi Xenophon fought.
- 132 BC – AD 214 Kingdom of Osroene Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia founded as the Seleucids collapsed, ruled from Edessa by the Nabataean Arab Abgarid dynasty.
- 281 BC – AD 62 Kingdom of Pontus Hellenistic kingdom on the southern Black Sea coast, ruled by the Mithridatic dynasty claiming Achaemenid royal descent.
- 3rd century BC – c. 95 BCHellenistic kingdom Kingdom of Sophene Small Hellenistic kingdom in the upper Euphrates-Tigris borderland between Greater Armenia and Syria, near modern Elazig.
- c. 312 BC – AD 106Arab trading kingdom Nabataeans Arab trading kingdom of northern Arabia and the southern Levant, its stronghold at Petra first attacked unsuccessfully in 312 BC.
- 247 BC – AD 224 Parthian Empire Iranian empire of the Arsacid King of Kings, founded by the Parni chieftain Arsaces I after conquering Parthia from the Seleucids.
- AD 154–183South Arabian kingdom Qataban South Arabian kingdom centred on the Wadi Bayhan, one of six great ancient kingdoms alongside Saba, Hadramawt and Himyar.
- c. 1000–800 BC – AD 275South Arabian kingdom Sabaeans South Arabian kingdom of Saba, the most prestigious of the region, centred on the oases of Marib and Sirwah in Yemen.
- AD 224 – 651 Sasanian Empire Last great pre-Islamic Iranian empire, founded by Ardashir I of Persis after he killed the final Parthian king at Hormozdgan.
- c. 268/293 – 602 Lakhmid Kingdom Arab client kingdom of the Sasanian Empire ruling southern Mesopotamia from Al-Hira, founded by Amr ibn Adi of Banu Lakhm.
- traditional c. 220 – 638 Ghassanids Christian Arab confederation serving as Byzantine foederati, tracing origins to the Azd of South Arabia and camped at Jabiyah.
The early caliphates
632 – 1050 17 entries- AD 632 – 661 Rashidun Caliphate First Islamic caliphate after Muhammad, led by his four elected companion successors from Medina and then Kufa.
- c. 642–760 Dabuyid Dynasty Zoroastrian Iranian dynasty ruling Tabaristan and western Khorasan from Fuman until the Abbasid conquest of 760.
- 661–750 Umayyad Caliphate Hereditary caliphate of the Meccan Banu Umayya clan, ruled from Damascus after Uthman's Umayyad line triggered the First Fitna.
- 750–1258Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate Caliphate descended from the Prophet's uncle al-Abbas, built on a clandestine Khurasani movement and centred on Baghdad.
- ancient kingdom c. 302 BC–580 ADKingdom Kingdom of Iberia Georgian kingdom of Kartli in the Caucasus, founded by Pharnavaz I with his citadel at Armaztsikhe near Mtskheta.
- 861–1003Emirate Saffarid Dynasty First indigenous Iranian dynasty after the Arab conquest, founded from Zaranj by coppersmith-warlord Ya'qub ibn al-Layth.
- 864–928Theocratic emirate/imamate Zaydi Alid dynasties Alid theocratic dynasties of Caspian Tabaristan, begun when Hasanid leader Hasan ibn Zayd was invited to lead a tax revolt.
- 819–1018Emirate Ziyadid Dynasty First hereditary Islamic dynasty of the Yemeni lowland, ruled from Zabid by founder Muhammad ibn Ziyad of claimed Umayyad descent.
- 885–1045Kingdom Bagratid Armenia Kingdom restoring Armenian kingship after the Arsacids, led by the Bagratuni family who had prudently courted the Abbasids.
- 899–1077Theocratic state (Ismaili) Qarmatians Radical Ismaili Shia theocratic movement based at the al-Hasa oasis, founded by convert Hamdan Qarmat after an 899 schism.
- 908–1021Kingdom (Artsruni) Kingdom of Vaspurakan Armenian Artsruni kingdom southeast of Lake Van, an itinerant court ruling the hereditary province of Vaspurakan.
- 934–1062 Buyid Dynasty Confederation of Iranian Intermezzo emirates founded by the sons of Daylamite fisherman Buya, ruling from Shiraz, Ray and Baghdad.
- 890–1004Emirates Hamdanid Emirates Arab emirates of the Banu Taghlib tribe ruling Upper Mesopotamia and northern Syria, founded by Hamdan ibn Hamdun at Mardin.
- 931–1090 Ziyarid dynasty Gilaki Iranian Intermezzo monarchy founded when Mardavij ibn Ziyar conquered Tabaristan and named it after his father.
- 945–1055 Abbasid Caliphate/Buyid Dynasty Abbasid caliphate reduced to Baghdad under Buyid military tutelage, after Turkish soldiers fragmented its provinces.
- 1137–1270Kingdom Zagwe Dynasty Agaw Christian monarchy of the Ethiopian highlands, said founded when general Mara Takla Haymanot seized the throne at Lasta.
- 1037–1194Empire Great Seljuk Empire Empire of the Oghuz Turkmen Seljuk clan, led into Khorasan by Tughril and Chaghri Beg after Samanid and Ghaznavid service.
Seljuks, crusaders and sultans
1050 – 1300 21 entries- 1047–1138Sultanate (Fatimid vassal) Sulayhid Dynasty Fatimid vassal sultanate of the Yemeni Banu Sulayh clan, founded by Ali ibn Muhammad al-Sulayhi after his Ismaili conversion.
- 1022–1158Emirate Najahid Dynasty Yemeni emirate ruled by Abyssinian Mamluk slave-soldiers who took power at Zabid after the Ziyadid kingdom's collapse.
- 1076–1253Emirate Uyunid Emirate Arab emirate of the Banu Abdul Qays tribe ruling eastern Arabia's al-Hasa, Qatif and Bahrain after the Qarmatian era ended.
- 1083–1174 Zurayid dynasty Ismaili emirate of Aden founded by the Banu Hamdan, kinsmen of the Sulayhids who preached with Fatimid missionary support.
- 1071/1075–1178 Danishmendids Turkoman ghazi principality of central-northeastern Anatolia, founded after the Seljuk victory over Byzantium at Manzikert.
- 1080–1375 Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia Armenian kingdom of refugees settled in the Cilician plain after Bagratid Armenia's fall and the Manzikert defeat.
- 1098–1150 County of Edessa First Crusader state and the first to fall, seized by Baldwin of Boulogne at ancient Edessa in Upper Mesopotamia in 1098.
- 1099–1291 Kingdom of Jerusalem Principal Crusader state founded after the First Crusade stormed Jerusalem in 1099 amid Seljuk and Fatimid disunity.
- 1098–1268 Principality of Antioch Crusader principality born of the grueling siege of Antioch, taken through the treachery of the Armenian guard Firouz.
- 1102–1289 County of Tripoli Last of the four great Crusader states, carved from the Lebanese coast by Raymond IV of Toulouse around his Mons Peregrinus fort.
- 1127–1250 Zengid dynasty Turkoman Sunni atabegate of the Seljuk Empire, founded at Mosul by Imad al-Din Zengi and later ruling from Damascus and Aleppo.
- 1159–1174 Mahdid Dynasty Short-lived Yemeni dynasty of the Tihama lowland, founded by preacher Ali ibn Mahdi who claimed Himyarite royal ancestry.
- 1154–1624 Nabhani Dynasty Arab dynasty of ascribed Azdi origin ruling Oman for five centuries as muluk after founder Muhammed al-Fallah broke Seljuk sway.
- 1171–1260Sultanate Ayyubid Sultanate Sunni Kurdish sultanate founded by Najm al-Din Ayyub's family, Zengid officers at Mosul who rose to rule Cairo and Damascus.
- 1077 – 1231Empire Khwarezmian Empire Persianate Turkic mamluk empire of the Anushteginid Khwarazmshahs, ruled from the Khwarazm oasis south of the Aral Sea.
- 1204 – 1461 Empire of Trebizond Byzantine successor state on the southeastern Black Sea coast, last of the Greek empires born from the Fourth Crusade's wreckage.
- 1229 – 1454Sultanate Rasulid Dynasty Sunni sultanate ruling Yemen for over two centuries, most likely of Oghuz Turkic origin despite claimed Ghassanid Arab ancestry.
- 1250 – 1517Sultanate Mamluk Sultanate Sultanate of manumitted slave-soldier kings governing Egypt, Syria and the Hejaz from Cairo, founded by the Bahriyya regiment.
- map years 1260–1520Emirate Bahrani Dynasty Succession of Bedouin and Arab dynasties ruling eastern Arabia's al-Hasa, Qatif and Bahrain after Qarmatian decline.
- 1270 – 1974Empire Ethiopian Empire Christian Solomonic empire of the Ethiopian highlands, begun when Yekuno Amlak overthrew the Zagwe dynasty in 1270.
- 1256 – 1335 Ilkhanate Mongol successor khanate of the Toluid House of Hulegu, known to its subjects as the Land of Iran after conquering Khwarazm.
Mongols to gunpowder empires
1300 – 1700 17 entries- c. 1291–1461 Beylik of Sinop Oghuz Turkmen beylik of the Candar dynasty in Paphlagonian northern Anatolia, ruling the Black Sea port of Sinop.
- c. 1291–1461 Kastamonu Turkmen beylik of a fortified Paphlagonian town, passing from Seljuk Chobanid atabegs to the Candarid ruler Suleyman I.
- 1337–1522Turkmen beylik Beylik of Dulkadir Turkmen beylik of Bayat, Afshar and Begdili tribesmen astride the Taurus marches between Mamluk Syria and Mongol Anatolia.
- c. 1304–1357 Injuids Post-Ilkhanid regional dynasty of Fars, named for the royal injue estates administered from Shiraz by Sharaf al-Din Mahmud Shah.
- 1335–1432 Jalayirid Sultanate Turco-Mongol successor sultanate descended from the Jalayir tribe, who helped rebuild Baghdad after its 1258 Mongol sack.
- 1244–1381 Kartids Sunni Tajik regional dynasty related to the Ghurids, granted the governorship of Herat by the Great Khan Mongke in 1244.
- 1314–1393 Muzaffarids Post-Ilkhanid dynasty of claimed Arab origin but Persianized and Mongol-intermarried, ruling from Kerman and later Shiraz.
- 1374–1468 Qara Qoyunlu Black Sheep Turkmen confederation of the Yiwa tribe, grazing land near Lake Van and Mosul before ruling from Tabriz.
- 1352–1608 Ramadanid Emirate Turkmen frontier emirate of Cilicia created by the Mamluk Sultanate rather than the Seljuks, ruled from Adana as a client state.
- 1378–1508 Aq Qoyunlu White Sheep Turkmen confederation of the Bayandur clan, recorded besieging Trebizond before ruling from Diyarbakir and Tabriz.
- c. 1436–1736 Hashemite Arab Federation Arab sayyid state most plausibly the Musha'sha' of Huwaizah in Khuzestan, founded by Muhammad ibn Falah amid fragmented Iraq.
- 1454–1517 Tahirid Sultanate Sunni Arab sultanate of Yemen ruled by a Juban clan claiming Umayyad descent, formerly trusted magnates of the Rasulid sultans.
- 1478–1762 Kingdom of Kartli Georgian kingdom centred on Tbilisi, the principal successor state when civil war split the medieval Kingdom of Georgia.
- c. 1463 – 1829 Principality of Guria Georgian feudal principality on the fertile coastal strip between the Rioni and Chorokhi rivers, splintered from Georgian unity.
- 1266/1268 – 1625 Samtskhe-Saatabago Georgian atabegate of southern Georgia ruled by the House of Jaqeli, whose Ivane I alone resisted the Mongol invasion until 1238.
- 1624 – 1742/1749Imamate / dynasty Yarubid dynasty Imamate dynasty that restored Omani independence from the Portuguese and made the country a leading Indian Ocean sea power.
- 1597 – 1849Imamate (Zaydi theocracy) Qasimid State Zaydi theocratic imamate of Yemen, the strongest Zaydi state ever to rise from highland resistance against Ottoman rule.
Empire and mandate
1700 – 1918 20 entries- 1709 – 1738Dynasty / short-lived empire Hotaki Dynasty Short-lived Afghan empire of the Ghilzai Pashtuns, founded when Kandahar mayor Mirwais Hotak killed the brutal Safavid governor.
- 1736 – 1796Empire Afsharid Iran Iranian empire built by conqueror Nader Shah, a Turkoman Afshar warlord who rose from the wreckage of Safavid collapse.
- 1744 – 1818 Emirate of Diriyah First Saudi theocratic emirate of Najd, born of an alliance between reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and a local prince.
- 1744 – presentSultanate Sultanate of Oman Sultanate of the Al Bu Said dynasty, emerging from the Yarubid civil war under Sohar governor Ahmad bin Said al-Busaidi.
- 1751 – 1794Monarchy (Iranian dynasty) Zand Dynasty Iranian monarchy of the Lak Zand tribe, deported by Nader Shah to Khorasan, who marched home to contend for power as Karim Khan.
- map period 1757–1845 Bahrain Sheikhdom of the pearl-rich Awal archipelago known since antiquity as Dilmun, under shifting Persian and Omani suzerainty.
- 1752–presentEmirate Kuwait Emirate founded when Bani Utub families of the Anizah confederation migrated from Najd to settle the head of the Persian Gulf.
- 1783–present House of Khalifa Sunni Arab dynasty of the Anizah confederation that built Zubarah into a pearling entrepot before conquering Bahrain.
- 1789–1925Empire Qajar Persia Persian empire founded by Qajar tribal chieftain Agha Mohammad Khan, a Turkic people long settled near the Caspian's Astarabad.
- 1814 – 1872 Imamate of Yemen Zaydi Shia theocratic imamate of Yemen, one of the longest-lived Islamic institutions, founded by scholar al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq.
- mid-19th century–1916Sheikhdom Qatar Dynasty Sheikhdom of pearling towns on the Qatar peninsula, contested between the Bani Khalid, Al Khalifa and Wahhabi Saudi states.
- 1820–1971 Trucial States Tribal sheikhdoms of the lower Gulf coast under British treaty protection, once called the Pirate Coast of the Qasimi clans.
- 1824–1891 Emirate of Nejd Second Saudi State risen from the first's wreckage, capital moved to Riyadh by Turki bin Abdullah after expelling Egyptian troops.
- 1836–1921Absolute monarchy Emirate of Jabal Shammar Absolute monarchy of the Rashidi dynasty over the Shammar tribal confederation of northern Arabia, ruled from Ha'il after 1836.
- 1856–1970Sultanate Sultanate of Muscat and Oman Sultanate born of the partition of the Omani maritime empire, ruled by the Al Bu Said dynasty from Muscat.
- 1913–1920 Imamate of Oman Ibadi theocratic elective imamate of the Omani interior, among the oldest political traditions in the Islamic world.
- c. 1868–1916Sheikhdom Qatar Sheikhdom of the Al Thani family navigating Ottoman withdrawal toward a British protectorate over the sparsely settled peninsula.
- 1916–1925 Kingdom of Hejaz Hashemite absolute monarchy born of the Arab Revolt, ruled from Mecca by Sharif Hussein bin Ali, descended from the Prophet.
- 1907–1934Imamate / emirate Asir Imamate and emirate grown from a Sufi revival, founded by Muhammad ibn Ali al-Idrisi at Sabya in the Tihamah lowlands.
- 1918–1920 Armenia Unitary parliamentary republic centred on Yerevan, the first Armenian state since the medieval Kingdom of Cilicia fell in 1375.
The modern states
1918 – today 32 entries- 1962–1990Islamic absolute monarchy North Yemen Islamic monarchy emerging from centuries of Ottoman rule, led by Zaydi Imam Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din, who fought the Ottomans.
- 1923–1946 French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon League of Nations mandate assigning Ottoman Syria to France, run from Beirut after Faisal's Arab Revolt army took Damascus.
- 1925–1979Empire Pahlavi Iran Iranian imperial monarchy rising from Qajar Iran's wreckage, weakened by foreign spheres and a faltering constitutional revolt.
- 1923–presentRepublic Republic of Turkey Republic forged from Ottoman collapse, founded after Allied occupation and the Treaty of Sevres threatened to partition Anatolia.
- 1926–1932 Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd Dual Saudi monarchy uniting Nejd and the Hejaz under Ibn Saud, who seized Riyadh and destroyed the Emirate of Jabal Shammar.
- 1921/1932–1958Constitutional monarchy Kingdom of Iraq Hashemite constitutional monarchy assembled by Britain from three Ottoman provinces after the Mesopotamian campaign of 1914-18.
- 1932 – presentAbsolute monarchy Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Absolute monarchy of the Al Saud dynasty, the third and most durable state built on the alliance with reformer Ibn Abd al-Wahhab.
- 1943 – present Lebanon Confessional parliamentary republic descended from Ottoman Mount Lebanon's tradition of Maronite Christian and Druze autonomy.
- 1950–1963 Second Syrian Republic Parliamentary republic with military interludes, growing from the French Mandate of Syria after Faisal's kingdom fell at Maysalun.
- 1946 – present Jordan Hashemite constitutional monarchy on ancient land of Ammon, Moab and Edom, descended from Sharif Hussein's Great Arab Revolt.
- 1916–1971 Qatar Protectorate British-protected sheikhdom of the Al Thani dynasty, recognized as distinct from Bahrain after the Qatari-Bahraini War of 1867-68.
- 1948–1959Egyptian client protectorate Palestinians Egyptian client protectorate of Gaza proclaimed as Arab forces held territory against Israel amid collapsing Mandatory Palestine.
- 1948 – presentParliamentary republic State of Israel Parliamentary republic and nation-state of the Jewish people, established on land of the ancient Israelite and Judahite kingdoms.
- 14 February – 2 August 1958 Arab Federation Confederal diarchy joining the Hashemite thrones of Iraq and Jordan as a pan-Arab counter-move against Nasserist unity schemes.
- 1958 – 2005Republic Iraqi Republic Republic born when Free Officers under Qasim and Arif overthrew the Hashemite monarchy and killed King Faisal II in 1958.
- 1961 – present Kuwait Constitutional emirate descended from an 18th-century Bedouin trading post, ruled since 1752 by the Al Sabah dynasty of the Utub.
- 1961–1963, after UAR secession Republic of Syria Unitary parliamentary republic restoring the Second Syrian Republic after the United Arab Republic's union with Egypt collapsed.
- 1963–2024 Ba'athist Syria One-party republic under military rule, born of the 1963 coup engineered by the Ba'ath Party's clandestine Military Committee.
- 1963–2025 Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party Ruling neo-Ba'athist party of Syria, tracing its founding to Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar's 1947 Damascus congress.
- 1967–1990Socialist republic South Yemen Marxist-Leninist socialist republic born of British Aden's collapse, led by the National Liberation Front after 1963's revolt.
- 1971–present Bahrain Constitutional monarchy of the Al Khalifa dynasty, a Sunni Bani Utbah clan that seized the Bahrain archipelago in 1783.
- 1971–present Qatar Hereditary semi-constitutional emirate descended from the Al Thani pearling sheikhdom recognized distinct from Bahrain in 1868.
- 1946–presentRepublic Syria Republic tracing statehood to independence from France in 1946, later shaped by Alawite officer Hafez al-Assad's rise to power.
- 1971–presentFederation of seven emirates United Arab Emirates Federal monarchy uniting the former Trucial States, whose pearling coast turned to oil wealth after Umm Shaif's 1958 discovery.
- 1973–presentState Afghanistan Modern state descended from the Durrani Empire and the Kingdom of Afghanistan, borders fixed by the nineteenth-century Great Game.
- 1979–presentIslamic republic Islamic Republic of Iran Theocratic-republican hybrid born of the Iranian Revolution that overthrew Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's monarchy in 1979.
- 1979 – 2021Insurgent territory Mujahideen-held areas Islamist insurgent resistance to Afghanistan's communist regime and Soviet invasion, later governing before Taliban insurgency.
- 1990–presentRepublic Yemen Republic proclaimed in 1990 by merging the Yemen Arab Republic in the north with the People's Democratic Republic in the south.
- 1991–presentRepublic Armenia Third modern Armenian republic, heir to ancient Christian civilization and the First Republic absorbed into the USSR.
- 1991/1993–present Eritrea One-party presidential republic on colonial Italian foundations, proclaimed in 1890 after Italy seized Massawa and built Asmara.
- 1996–2001Theocratic Islamic emirate Taliban Theocratic Islamic emirate of Pashto-speaking students, emerging around Kandahar from the lawless vacuum of mujahideen collapse.
- 2003–present Republic of Iraq Federal parliamentary republic born of the 2003 US-led invasion that toppled Saddam Hussein and ended Ba'athist one-party rule.
Common questions
- How many Middle Eastern states are in this glossary?
- 126 — every Middle Eastern territory the atlas draws, from Hadhramaut (early 1st millennium BC – c. AD 290) to the states on the map today. Each entry lists its dates, its peak extent and the sources it was written from.
- Which is the oldest Middle Eastern state on the map?
- Hadhramaut, early 1st millennium BC – c. AD 290 — the first territory the atlas draws in Middle East. The most recent to appear is the Republic of Iraq (2003–present).
- Which Middle Eastern state covered the most ground?
- Of the territories mapped here, the Umayyad Caliphate reached the largest area — about 9.9M km² at its peak, as drawn by the border data.